Should Drugs Be Legalised in Sport free essay sample

I will be discussing sports has a whole industry rather than specifying one particular sport or event, taking the main issues and explaining both sides. Drug testing in sports is very common now. In most professional and some amateur sports events across the globe, drug testing is used randomly or the people that normally finish first second and third are drudges tested on a precautionary measure. They can turn up anywhere and at any time, and you must supply them with a valid drugs test within one hour of being notified that your national governing body has required you to undertake a drugs test. In most cases the urine drugs test is used but the blood drugs test and know the hair follicle drug test can be used. The most common is the urine test, but at major sports events the other two will be used. Case for legalisation The case for legalisation of performance enhancing drugs in sport is mostly made by the athletes themselves (‘currently an athlete is held ‘strictly liable ‘for whatever substances are found in his or her body. We will write a custom essay sample on Should Drugs Be Legalised in Sport? or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page such a strict liability provision rules out any defence’)( vassal gringo (2004). the Olympic games explained. Great Britain: Rutledge. 184-185. ) so even if the athlete unwillingly or unknowingly takes a drug, they will still be prosecuted to the full extent of the rules, and sometimes even law. In some countries (e. g. ; France) athletes that fail drugs tests are also arrested and sentenced for defrauding the public. Just imagine if you were in your teens, and your coach knowingly put drugs in your sports drink, but you didn’t know you had takes them, should you be banned for life and sometimes arrested. In this instance if some drugs were made legal in sports there ould not be all this secret taking and deceiving of the athletes and fans. Lots of athletes that fail drugs test claim that they have no knowledge they have taken anything illegal. (‘Dwain chambers denies knowingly taking a ‘designer steroid’ but was still banned from the Olympic games for life in 2004’)( )( vassil girginov (2004). the Olympic Games explained. Great Britain: Routhledge. 185-186) know this just might be and excuse. But imagine if he was telling the truth , if he didn’t know he was taking them should he still be banned?. There is also an argument about would it make the drugs safer as some athletes go to extreme lengths to make themselves better then there opponents. I have been there when athletes have been injecting themselves will bull hormone and horse hormone, to make themselves more worked up and stronger. Now these are very extreme methods of drug taking, they are also extremely dangerous to the liver and heart as they are not designed to produce or filter out that type of hormone, it’s the sale with any drug you are taking it because your body can’t produce it and it therefore makes you better. Now if some drugs were legalised there would be studies and tests done to make it as safe as possible. Doctors could also regulate you dosage and what you are taking moire easily, there fore not becoming addicted or reliant upon the drug that is being taken. This would save lives in some instances, as people just push further and further , if there were strict guidelines on how to take it when and were It would make it a much safer and more enjoyable sport to play and watch , as everybody is guilty un till proven innocent in the world of sport. It would also make the sport fairer. Is it fair that the athletes that don’t get caught taking drugs should have an advantage over the ones that don’t take the drugs? Drugs tests can only tell if you have been taking drugs that they know about. They cannot tell if you have just been taking drugs, as the have to screen for certain drugs. so if you have drug only you know about then you gain an unfair advantage, if everybody had that drug then there would be a more fair line drawn across the athletes, making them more equal and therefore making it a better sport to play and watch, now one wants to watch one person have an advantage, that isn’t natural or skill based and in. . Case against legalisation One point is that even if you legalise some drugs, will it make a difference many athletes will still want to use better ones than the ones that would be made legal(‘If doping was accepted then some athletes would still seek to gain an unfair advantage , by adopting a more is better policy. Checkin g whether or not agreed levels of drug usage were being adhered to would be difficult to monitor. )( Toohey Vial (2006). A social science perspective. 2nd ed. Oxford: CABI) so even if drugs were made legal the levels of drug you could take would be almost impossible to track, and regulate. As on athlete could just be taking more of the drug than the other people, and gaining and advantage anyway. athletes would also always find better ones than the ones that were legal and us them anyway , it would close the gap a bit of they were all taking some sort of drug legal or illegal , but overall would make no difference to if it is now were all forms of doping are illegal. Many people also think it is against the spirit/ethics of the sport in general (‘The use of performance enhancing drugs is contrary to the essence of sport, and the philosophy of the Olympics, which places its emphasis on fair and equal competition)( . )( Toohey Vial (2006). A social science perspective. 2nd ed. Oxford: CABI, pg 174-175. ) the spirit of fair play and sportsmanship I n sport are very important unwritten rules , and people can be more tarnished by breaking these than taking drugs. People think that you will tarnish the image and reputation of sporting events and sports, if you legalise drugs. there is also the argument about role models, know if drugs were made legal , you couldn’t just have the best ones taking the drugs , you would have to implement it nationally as well, so kids would maybe start taking the drugs to emulate there role models in there chosen sports, if it was ever legalised the dangers to children would always be the same there would have to be strict age policies and guide lines.

Multiple Submissions of Freelance Material

Multiple Submissions of Freelance Material A reader asked me to address this topic. She had an article to query to publications and didnt want to wait for one answer at a time. Could she pitch to several markets at once, she asked. The answer isnt a simple Yes or No. Its actually Yes AND No. And I have my own personal anecdote for this lesson. Back in my earlier freelance days, I proposed articles on writers and grants to Writers Digest as well as The Writer. Each was a unique pitch, written differently, but on the same subject. Id just gone full time  as a freelancer and knew the odds of both nationally-recognized magazines accepting my pieces was slim to none. One of the publications accepted within a month but never stated when the story would come out. The other didnt get in touch for almost a year but told me when the article would appear. They both came out in the same month. I received a contributors copy feeling completely ecstatic. Then I opened the other envelope in the mail and saw where the other publication sent me their contributors copy. The thrill of opening one was replaced with dread and despair. Sure enough, one of the editors contacted me seething. The other never said a word. I was afraid to pitch either of them for years. When is it okay to pitch the same article to different publications? 1) When the publications are not in a competing market OR 2) When you mention in the query that you have also pitched the piece elsewhere. For instance, if you pitch a story on how to maintain grass in a cemetery (yes, I actually published that piece), it can be simultaneously pitched to a turfgrass magazine and a genealogy magazine since they are not competing publications. However, when one accepts, it behooves you to let the other know. Sure, they may kill your piece, but you dont want to burn the bridge to future gigs. Even if you write completely different articles, if they are about the same topic consider them too similar to pitch to competing markets, but understand that noncompeting markets may not care, with both accepting your piece. And while were talking freelancing, I want to mention a remarkable guide book on becoming a freelance writer.  Writers Digest Guide to Magazine Article Writing  is your practical guide to selling pitches, crafting strong articles, and earning more I stand solidly behind  this book, written

Tips and Tricks for Getting Your Students Attention

Tips and Tricks for Getting Your Students Attention One of the biggest challenges teachers face is getting (and keeping) their students attention. Learning to do so takes time and practice, but effective teaching requires it. Here are 20 attention signals to help get your students attention. Plus: simple strategies to get them to hang on to your every word. 20 Attention Signals Here are 20 call and response teacher attention signals to use in your elementary classroom. Teacher says, One, Two - Students response, Eyes on you.Teacher says, Eyes - Students response, Open.Teacher Says, Ears - Students response, Listening.Teacher says, If you can hear me clap once, if you hear me clap twice.Teacher says, Hear Ye Hear ye - Students response, All eyes on the queen.Teacher says, Give me five - Students respond by raising their hand.Teacher says, Peanut butter - Students say Jelly.Teacher says, Tomato - Students say Tomahto.Teacher says, Ready to Rock? - Students response, Ready to Roll.Teacher says, Hey - Students respond with Ho.Teacher says, Macaroni - Students respond with Cheese.Teacher says, Marco - Students respond, Polo.Teacher says, One fish, Two Fish - Students response, Red Fish, Blue Fish.Teacher says, Silent Guitar - Students respond by playing air guitar.Teacher says, Silent Wiggles - Students respond by dancing around.Teacher says, Hocus, Pocus - Students response is Everybody focus.Teacher says, Chocolate - Students response, Cake. Teacher says, All set - Students say, You bet.Teacher says, Hands on top - Students say, That means stop!Teacher says, Chica Chica - Students say, Boom Boom. Tips for Getting Students Attention Practice, practice, practice! Go over your attention signal until your blue in the face.Praise students for getting (and doing) the signal correctly.Make it fun! Change it up and say (or do) the signal fast, or slow, soft or loud. Non-Verbal Ways to Keep Students Quiet Tips for Keeping Students Attention Once you figure out which attention signal works best for you and your students, your next job is to keep their attention. Here are a few tips to help you do just that. Create interactive hands-on lessons - Students are more apt to stay engaged when they are actively involved in the lesson. Try a cooperative learning lesson or use classroom learning centers to keep students engaged.Get students up and moving - Help students refocus their energy by getting them up and moving. Play a learning game sitting on their desks, have them stand up while working, or take a break every thirty minutes where students get up and do a series of quick exercises.Change the scenery - The monotony of the everyday routine in the same room, learning the same way can be dull and boring for students. Once a week, change it up by teaching outside, in the hallway, or any other room other than your classroom. This is a surefire way to get and keep your students attention. More Tips and Ideas Wear bright clothesUse humor in your lessonsVideotape your lesson and play it to your classroomHave students take notesPlay background musicGive students a checklist of what they need to knowTurn the lights off while teaching a lessonHave students use a computer or iPadHave students take photos during a lesson that pertain to the lesson

Theoretical Perspectives and the Strong Argument Essay

Theoretical Perspectives and the Strong Argument - Essay Example Functionalism, Behaviorism, dependency theory, critical theories, and other approaches, including international ethics, post-colonialism, post-modernism, historical sociology, state cartel theory, and geopolitics. (Baylis and Smith, 2001) Then, in order to define historical events of the global policy within conceptual framework, according to Sens and Stoett, we must connect international relations with theoretical perspectives as their origins but on the contrary as their outcomes. (2005) So, let us begin the thorough examination of methods of global politics with the Realism. It can be classical (for example, writings of Thomas Hobbes), neo-realist, offensive, defensive, neo-classical, and liberal (English school). (Brown, 2005) Being separated into three main groups, realist theories presented nation-states as the â€Å"main actors in international politics.† (Burchill, 2001) Firstly, â€Å"statism† is believed to be a â€Å"state-centric theory of international rel ations;† then, â€Å"survival† theory signifies that global policy is a â€Å"struggle for power between self-interested states† (Bucher, 1998); thirdly, â€Å"self-help† theory claims that â€Å"no other states can be relied upon to help guarantee the state’s survival.† (Brown and Nardin, 2002) Furthermore, theoretical approach of Liberalism, originated from the utopian tradition rather than from rational, claims that â€Å"state preferences†¦ are the primary determinant of state behavior,† (Der Derian, 1995) depending on culture, economy, or governance; on the contrary, Realism hold that only â€Å"high politics† could determine the nature of things in the international relations, not â€Å"low politics,† as it was stated by Liberalism. Afterwards, Neoliberalism, being widely known as neoliberal institutionalism, can be treated through a suggestion that only international institutions as an international cobweb of global institutions must be regarded as relevant enough to solve the problems with state autonomy and sovereignty within politic, human rights, economic, and social dimension. Also, Post-liberalism is focused constantly on the defining of terms of autonomy and sovereignty with a means of interdependency between states, global institutions, and non-state agents. Moreover, not being originated from positivist/rationalist group of theories, Constructivism could not be traced to the Realism or Liberalism. Therefore, arguing that â€Å"international policies is shaped by persuasive ideas, collective values, culture, and social identities,† Constructivism views the theoretical framework of global policy as socially constructed. Ultimately, if Realism was tended to determine the global politics by the factor of nation-state military power and Liberalism viewed international cobweb of global institutions as principally framed with the means of non-state agents, concepts

Critically discuss the movement from collectivism to individualism in Essay

Critically discuss the movement from collectivism to individualism in particular how it has been expressed in pay systems over the past 30 years - Essay Example Now we are told we must collectivize the nation because the people are so rich." -- William F. Buckley, Jr. Tribalism fueled the ideas associated with collectivism. At one time, there was no individuality, per se, except that which existed within the realm of the group or the whole. All that was done was for the good of all and all concerned. In laymen’s terms, what people thought of one another and how they interacted within their own undefined communities was all that mattered. This began to change in the late 1800s and early 1900s as group-think gave way to hedonistic self-preservation, or what is now known as individualism. A well-known Scottish hedonist and individualist by the name of John Stuart Mill, who was born in London, had a belief system that is still considered a standard in group psychology to this day. Mill was a self-described ‘socialist’ who believed that liberalism should advance the cause of individual freedoms and minimize state action, as opposed to what many believe today about socialism. Terms and usages of these different words and ideologies overlapped over time and many today believe that socialism is another word for â€Å"let the state (government) reign over the man,† which is untrue. Socialism’s purist term means that the state is the guiding hand in a partnership between the collective group and the individual citizen. The state is also held responsible, to some degree, for providing opportunities in which individuals can not only survive, but thrive. It took some time to ponder, but it appears today that ‘statism’ (or collectivism) a nd individualism are not necessarily always diametrically opposed to one another. Differences in intertwined ideals, philosophies and opinions define collectivism ‘as opposed’ to individualism, or benevolence (‘socialism’) versus self-love (‘narcissism’ or ‘hedonism’). The suffix

Pre-Socratic Philosophers Essay Example for Free

Pre-Socratic Philosophers Essay Pre-Socratic is the expression commonly used to describe those Greek thinkers who lived and wrote between 600 and 400 B.C. It was the Pre-Socratics who attempted to find universal principles which would explain the natural world from its origins to mans place in it. Although Socrates died in 399 B.C., the term Pre-Socratic indicates not so much a chronological limit, but rather an outlook or range of interests, an outlook attacked by both Protagoras (a Sophist) and Socrates, because natural philosophy was worthless when compared with the search for the good life. To give the Pre-Socratic thinkers their full due would require an article of encyclopedic scope. Given that, I have decided to list a number of sites on individual Pre-Socratic thinkers.Anaximander1. Life and SourcesThe history of written Greek philosophy starts with Anaximander of Miletus in Asia Minor, a fellow-citizen of Thales. He was the first who dared to write a treatise in prose, which has been called traditionally On Nature. This book has been lost, although it probably was available in the library of the Lyceum at the times of Aristotle and his successor Theophrastus. It is said that Apollodorus, in the second century BCE, stumbled upon a copy of it, perhaps in the famous library of Alexandria. Recently, evidence has appeared that it was part of the collection of the library of Taormina in Sicily, where a fragment of a catalogue has been found, on which Anaximander’s name can be read. Only one fragment of the book has come down to us, quoted by Simplicius (after Theophrastus), in the sixth century AD. It is perhaps the most famous and most discussed phrase in the history of philosophy.We also know very little of Anaximander’s life. He is said to have led a mission that founded a colony called Apollonia on the coast of the Black Sea. He also probably introduced the gnomon (a perpendicular sun-dial) into Greece and erected one in Sparta. So he seems to have been a much-traveled man, which is not astonishing, as the Milesians were known to be audacious sailors. It is also reported that he displayed solemn manners and wore pompous garments. Most of the information on Anaximander comes from Aristotle and his pupil Theophrastus, whose book on the history of philosophy was used, excerpted, and quoted by many other authors, the so-called doxographers, before it was lost. Sometimes, in these texts words or expressions appear that can with some certainty be ascribed  to Anaximander himself. Relatively many testimonies, approximately one third of them, have to do with astronomical and cosmological questions. Hermann Diels and Walter Kranz have edited the doxography (A) and the existing texts (B) of the Presocratic philosophers in Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Berlin 1951-19526. (A quotation like â€Å"DK 12A17†³ means: â€Å"Diels/Kranz, Anaximander, doxographical report no.17†³).| 2. The â€Å"Boundless† as Principle According to Aristotle and Theophrastus, the first Greek philosophers were looking for the â€Å"origin† or â€Å"principle† (the Greek word â€Å"archà ªÃ¢â‚¬  has both meanings) of all things. Anaximander is said to have identified it with â€Å"the Boundless† or â€Å"the Unlimited† (Greek: â€Å"apeiron,† that is, â€Å"that which has no boundaries†). Already in ancient times, it is complained that Anaximander did not explain what he meant by â€Å"the Boundless.† More recently, authors have disputed whether the Boundless should be interpreted as spatially or temporarily without limits, or perhaps as that which has no qualifications, or as that which is inexhaustible. Some scholars have even defended the meaning â€Å"that which is not experienced,† by relating the Greek word â€Å"apeiron† not to â€Å"peras† (â€Å"boundary,† â€Å"limit†), but to â€Å"perao† (â€Å"to experience,â⠂¬  â€Å"to apperceive†). The suggestion, however, is almost irresistible that Greek philosophy, by making the Boundless into the principle of all things, has started on a high level of abstraction. On the other hand, some have pointed out that this use of â€Å"apeiron† is atypical for Greek thought, which was occupied with limit, symmetry and harmony. The Pythagoreans placed the boundless (the â€Å"apeiron†) on the list of negative things, and for Aristotle, too, perfection became aligned with limit (Greek: â€Å"peras†), and thus â€Å"apeiron† with imperfection. Therefore, some authors suspect eastern (Iranian) influence on Anaximander’s ideas. Anaximenes (d. 528 BCE) According to the surviving sources on his life, Anaximenes flourished in the mid 6th century BCE and died around 528. He is the third philosopher of the Milesian School of philosophy, so named because like Thales and Anaximander, Anaximenes was an inhabitant of Miletus, in Ionia (ancient Greece). Theophrastus notes that Anaximenes was an associate, and possibly a student, of Anaximander’s. Anaximenes is best known for his doctrine that air is the source of all things. In this way, he differed with his predecessors like Thales, who held that water is the source of all things, and Anaximander, who thought that all things came from an unspecified boundless stuff. 2. Doctrine of Change Given his doctrine that all things are composed of air, Anaximenes suggested an interesting qualitative account of natural change: [Air] differs in essence in accordance with its rarity or density. When it is thinned it becomes fire, while when it is condensed it becomes wind, then cloud, when still more condensed it becomes water, then earth, then stones. Everything else comes from these. (DK13A5) Influence on later Philosophy Anaximenes’ theory of successive change of matter by rarefaction and condensation was influential in later theories. It is developed by Heraclitus (DK22B31), and criticized by Parmenides (DK28B8.23-24, 47-48). Anaximenes’ general theory of how the materials of the world arise is adopted by Anaxagoras(DK59B16), even though the latter has a very different theory of matter. Both Melissus (DK30B8.3) and Plato (Timaeus 49b-c) see Anaximenes’ theory as providing a common-sense explanation of change. Diogenes of Apollonia makes air the basis of his explicitly monistic theory. The Hippocratic treatise On Breaths uses air as the central concept in a theory of diseases. By providing cosmological accounts with a theory of change, Anaximenes separated them from the realm of mere speculation and made them, at least in conception, scientific theories capable of testing. Thales of Miletus (c. 620 BCE – c. 546 BCE) The ancient Greek philosopher Thales was born in Miletus in Greek Ionia. Aristotle, the major source for Thales’s philosophy and science, identified Thales as the first person to investigate the basic principles, the question of the originating substances of matter and, therefore, as the founder of the school of natural philosophy. Thales was interested in almost everything, investigating almost all areas of knowledge, philosophy, history, science, mathematics, engineering, geography, and politics. He  proposed theories to explain many of the events of nature, the primary substance, the support of the earth, and the cause of change. Thales was much involved in the problems of astronomy and provided a number of explanations of cosmological events which traditionally involved supernatural entities. His questioning approach to the understanding of heavenly phenomena was the beginning of Greek astronomy. Thales’ hypotheses were new and bold, and in freeing phenomena from godly intervention, he paved the way towards scientific endeavor. He founded the Milesian school of natural philosophy, developed the scientific method, and initiated the first western enlightenment. A number of anecdotes is closely connected to Thales’ investigations of the cosmos. When considered in association with his hypotheses they take on added meaning and are most enlightening. Thales was highly esteemed in ancient times, and a letter cited by Diogenes Laertius, and purporting to be from Anaximenes to Pythagoras, advised that all our discourse should begin with a reference to Thales (D.L. II.4). 1. The Writings of Thales Doubts have always existed about whether Thales wrote anything, but a number of ancient reports credit him with writings. Simplicius (Diels, Dox. p. 475) specifically attributed to Thales authorship of the so-called Nautical Star-guide. Diogenes Laertius raised doubts about authenticity, but wrote that ‘according to others [Thales] wrote nothing but two treatises, one On the Solstice and one On the Equinox‘ (D.L. I.23). Lobon of Argus asserted that the writings of Thales amounted to two hundred lines (D.L. I.34), and Plutarch associated Thales with opinions and accounts expressed in verse (Plutarch, De Pyth. or. 18. 402 E). Hesychius, recorded that ‘[Thales] wrote on celestial matters in epic verse, on the equinox, and much else’ (DK, 11A2). Callimachus credited Thales with the sage advice that navigators should navigate by Ursa Minor (D.L. I.23), advice which may have been in writing. Diogenes mentions a poet, Choerilus, who declared that ‘[Thales] was the first to maintain the immortality of the soul’ (D.L. I.24), and in De Anima, Aristotle’s words ‘from what is recorded about [Thales]‘, indicate that Aristotle was working from a written source. Diogenes recorded that  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ[Thales] seems by some accounts to have been the first to study astronomy, the first to predict eclipses of the sun and to fix the solstices; so Eudemus in his History of Astronomy. It was this which gained for him the admiration of Xenophanes and Herodotus and the notice of Heraclitus and Democritus’ (D.L. I.23). Eudemus who wrote a History of Astronomy, and also on geometry and theology, must be considered as a possible source for the hypotheses of Thales. The information provided by Diogenes is the sort of material which he would have included in his History of Astronomy, and it is possible that the titles On the Solstice, and On the Equinox were a vailable to Eudemus. Xenophanes, Herodotus, Heraclitus and Democritus were familiar with the work of Thales, and may have had a work by Thales available to them. A solstice is an astronomical event that happens twice each year when the Sun reaches its highest position in the sky as seen from the North or South Pole. The word solstice is derived from the Latin sol (sun) and sistere (to stand still), because at the solstices, the Sun stands still in declination; that is, the seasonal movement of the Suns path (as seen from Earth) comes to a stop before reversing direction. The solstices, together with the equinoxes, are connected with the seasons. In many cultures the solstices mark either the beginning or the midpoint of winter and summer. The term solstice can also be used in a broader sense, as the date (day) when this occurs. The day of the solstice is either the longest day of the year (in summer) or the shortest day of the year (in winter) for any place on Earth, because the length of time between sunrise and sunset on that day is the yearly maximum or minimum for that place. Proclus recorded that Thales was followed by a great wealth of geometers, most of whom remain as honoured names. They commence with Mamercus, who was a pupil of Thales, and include Hippias of Elis, Pythagoras, Anaxagoras, Eudoxus of Cnidus, Philippus of Mende, Euclid, and Eudemus, a friend of Aristotle, who wrote histories of arithmetic, of astronomy, and of geometry, and many lesser known names. It is possible that writings of Thales were available to some of these men. Any records which Thales may have kept would have been an advantage in his own work. This is especially true of mathematics, of the dates and times determined when fixing the solstices, the positions of stars, and in  financial transactions. It is difficult to believe that Thales would not have written down the information he had gathered in his travels, particularly the geometry he investigated in Egypt and his measuring of the height of the pyramid, his hypotheses about nature, and the cause of change. Proclus acknowledged Thales as the discoverer of a number of specific theorems (A Commentary on the First Book of Euclid’s Elements 65. 8-9; 250. 16-17). This suggests that Eudemus, Proclus’s source had before him the written records of Thales’s discoveries. How did Thales ‘prove’ his theorems if not in written words and sketches? The works On the Solstice, On the Equinox, which were attributed to Thales (D.L. I.23), and the ‘Nautical Star guide, to which Simplicius referred, may have been sources for the History of Astronomy of Eudemus (D.L. I.23). Pythagoras (c.570—c.495 BCE) The pre-Socratic Greek philosopher Pythagoras must have been one of the world’s greatest persons, but he wrote nothing, and it is hard to say how much of the doctrine we know as Pythagorean is due to the founder of the society and how much is later development. It is also hard to say how much of what we are told about the life of Pythagoras is trustworthy; for a mass of legend gathered around his name at an early date. Sometimes he is represented as a man of science, and sometimes as a preacher of mystic doctrines, and we might be tempted to regard one or other of those characters as alone historical. The truth is that there is no need to reject either of the traditional views. The union of mathematical genius and mysticism is common enough. Originally from Samos, Pythagoras founded at Kroton (in southern Italy) a society which was at once a religious community and a scientific school. Such a body was bound to excite jealousy and mistrust, and we hear of many struggles. Pythagoras himself had to flee from Kroton to Metapontion, where he died. It is stated that he was a disciple of Anaximander, his astronomy was the natural development of Anaximander’s. Also, the way in which the Pythagorean geometry developed also bears witness to its descent from that of Miletos. The great problem at this date was the duplication of the square, a problem which gave rise to the theorem of the square on the hypotenuse, commonly  known still as the Pythagorean proposition (Euclid, I. 47). If we were right in assuming that Thales worked with the old 3:4:5 triangle, the connection is obvious. Pythagoras argued that there are three kinds of men, just as there are three classes of strangers who come to the Olympic Games. The lowest consists of those who come to buy and sell, and next above them are those who come to compete. Best of all are those who simply come to look on. Men may be classified accordingly as lovers of wisdom, lovers of honor, and lovers of gain. That seems to imply the doctrine of the tripartite soul, which is also attributed to the early Pythagoreans on good authority, though it is common now to ascribe it to Plato. There are, however, clear references to it before his time, and it agrees much better with the general outlook of the Pythagoreans. The comparison of human life to a gathering like the Games was often repeated in later days. Pythagoras also taught the doctrine of Rebirth or transmigration, which we may have learned from the contemporary Orphics. Xenophanes made fun of him for pretending to recognize the voice of a departed friend in the howls of a beaten dog. Empedocles seems to be referring to him when he speaks of a man who could remember what happened ten or twenty generations before. It was on this that the doctrine of Recollection, which plays so great a part in Plato, was based. The things we perceive with the senses, Plato argues, remind us of things we knew when the soul was out of the body and could perceive reality directly. There is more difficulty about the cosmology of Pythagoras. Hardly any school ever professed such reverence for its founder’s authority as the Pythagoreans. ‘The Master said so’ was their watchword. On the other hand, few schools have shown so much capacity for progress and for adapting themselves to new conditions. Pythagoras started from the cosmical system of Anaximenes. Aristotle tells us that the Pythagoreans represented the world as inhaling ‘air’ form the boundless mass outside it, and this ‘air’ is identified with ‘the unlimited’. When, however, we come to the process by which things are developed out of the ‘unlimited’, we observe a great change. We hear nothing more of ‘separating out’ or even of rarefaction and condensation. Instead of that we have the theory that what gives form to the  Unlimited is the Limit. That is the great contribution of Pythagoras to philosophy, and we must try to understand it. Now the function of the Limit is usually illustrated from the arts of music and medicine, and we have seen how important these two arts were for Pythagoreans, so it is natural to infer that the key to its meaning is to be found in them. It may be taken as certain that Pythagoras himself discovered the numerical ratios which determine the concordant intervals of the musical scale. Similar to musical intervals, in medicine there are opposites, such as the hot and the cold, the wet and the dry, and it is the business of the physician to produce a proper ‘blend’ of these in the human body. In a well-known passage of Plato’s Phaedo (86 b) we are told by Simmias that the Pythagoreans held the body to be strung like an instrument to a certain pitch, hot and cold, wet and dry taking the place of high and low in music. Musical tuning and health are alike means arising from the application of Limit to the Unlimited. It was natural for Pythagoras to look for something of the same kind in the world at large. Briefly stated, the doctrine of Pythagoras was that all things are numbers. In certain fundamental cases, the early Pythagoreans represented numbers and explained their properties by means of dots arrang ed in certain ‘figures’ or patterns. Zeno’s Paradoxes In the fifth century B.C.E., Zeno of Elea offered arguments that led to conclusions contradicting what we all know from our physical experience–that runners run, that arrows fly, and that there are many different things in the world. The arguments were paradoxes for the ancient Greek philosophers. Because most of the arguments turn crucially on the notion that space and time are infinitely divisible—for example, that for any distance there is such a thing as half that distance, and so on—Zeno was the first person in history to show that the concept of infinity is problematical. In his Achilles Paradox, Achilles races to catch a slower runner–for example, a tortoise that is crawling away from him. The tortoise has a head start, so if Achilles hopes to overtake it, he must run at least to the place where the tortoise presently is, but by the time he arrives there, it will have crawled to a new place, so then Achilles must run to this new place, but the  tortoise meanwhile will have crawled on, and so forth. Achilles will never catch the tortoise, says Zeno. Therefore, good reasoning shows that fast runners never can catch slow ones. So much the worse for the claim that motion really occurs, Zeno says in defense of his mentor Parmenides who had argued that motion is an illusion. Although practically no scholars today would agree with Zeno’s conclusion, we can not escape the paradox by jumping up from our seat and chasing down a tortoise, nor by saying Achilles should run to some other target place ahead of where the tortoise is at the moment. What is required is an analysis of Zeno’s own argument that does not get us embroiled in new paradoxes nor impoverish our mathematics and science. This article explains his ten known paradoxes and considers the treatments that have been offered. Zeno assumed distances and durations can be divided into an actual infinity (what we now call a transfinite infinity) of indivisible parts, and he assumed these are too many for the runner to complete. Aristotle‘s treatment said Zeno should have assumed there are only potential infinities, and that neither places nor times divide into indivisible parts. His treatment became the generally accepted solution until the late 19th century. The current standard treatment says Zeno was right to conclude that a runner’s path contains an actual infinity of parts, but he was mistaken to assume this is too many. This treatment employs the apparatus of calculus which has proved its indispensability for the development of modern science. In the twentieth century it finally became clear that disallowing actual infinities, as Aristotle wanted, hampers the growth of set theory and ultimately of mathematics and physics. This standard treatment took hundreds of years to perfect and was due to the flexibility of intellectuals who were willing to replace old theories and their concepts with more fruitful ones, despite the damage done to common sense and our naive intuitions. The article ends by exploring newer treatments of the paradoxes—and related paradoxes such as Thomson’s Lamp Paradox—that were developed since the 1950s. Parmenides (b. 510 BCE) Parmenides was a Greek philosopher and poet, born of an illustrious family about BCE. 510, at Elea in Lower Italy, and is is the chief representative of the Eleatic philosophy. He was held in high esteem by his fellow-citizens for his excellent legislation, to which they ascribed the prosperity and wealth of the town. He was also admired for his exemplary life. A â€Å"Parmenidean life† was proverbial among the Greeks. He is commonly represented as a disciple of Xenophanes. Parmenides wrote after Heraclitus, and in conscious opposition to him, given the evident allusion to Hericlitus: â€Å"for whom it is and is not, the same and not the same, and all things travel in opposite directions† (fr. 6, 8). Little more is known of his biography than that he stopped at Athens on a journey in his sixty-fifth year, and there became acquainted with the youthful Socrates. That must have been in the middle of the fifth century BCE., or shortly after it. Parmenides broke with the older Ionic prose tradition by writing in hexameter verse. His didactic poem, called On Nature, survives in fragments, although the Proem (or introductory discourse) of the work has been preserved. Parmenides was a young man when he wrote it, for the goddess who reveals the truth to him addresses him as â€Å"youth.† The work is considered inartistic. Its Hesiodic style was appropriate for the cosmogony he describes in the second part, but is unsuited to the arid dialectic of the first. Parmenides was no born poet, and we must ask what led him to take this new departure. The example of Xenophanes’ poetic writings is not a complete explanation; for the poetry of Parmenides is as unlike that of Xenophanes as it well can be, and his style is more like Hesiod and the Orphics. In the Proem Parmenides describes his ascent to the home of the goddess who is supposed to speak the remainder of the verses; this is a reflexion of the conventional ascents i nto heaven which were almost as common as descents into hell in the apocalyptic literature of those days. The Proem opens with Parmenides representing himself as borne on a chariot and attended by the Sunmaidens who have quitted the Halls of Night to guide him on his journey. They pass along the highway till they come to the Gate of Night and Day, which is locked and barred. The key is in the keeping of Dike (Right), the Avenger, who is persuaded to unlock it by the Sunmaidens.  They pass in through the gate and are now, of course, in the realms of Day. The goal of the journey is the palace of a goddess who welcomes Parmenides and instructs him in the two ways, that of Truth and the deceptive way of Belief, in which is no truth at all. All this is described without inspiration and in a purely conventional manner, so it must be interpreted by the canons of the apocalyptic style. It is clearly meant to indicate that Parmenides had been converted, that he had passed from error (night) to truth (day), and the Two Ways must represent his former error and the truth which is now revealed to h im. There is reason to believe that the Way of Belief is an account of Pythagorean cosmology. In any case, it is surely impossible to regard it as anything else than a description of some error. The goddess says so in words that cannot be explained away. Further, this erroneous belief is not the ordinary man’s view of the world, but an elaborate system, which seems to be a natural development the Ionian cosmology on certain lines, and there is no other system but the Pythagorean that fulfils this requirement. To this it has been objected that Parmenides would not have taken the trouble to expound in detail a system he had altogether rejected, but that is to mistake the character of the apocalyptic convention. It is not Parmenides, but the goddess, that expounds the system, and it is for this reason that the beliefs described are said to be those of ‘mortals’. Now a description of the ascent of the soul would be quite incomplete without a picture of the region from which it had escaped. The goddess must reveal the two ways at the parting of which Parmenides stands, and bid him choose the better. The rise of mathematics in the Pythagorean school had revealed for the first time the power of thought. To the mathematician of all men it is the same thing that can be thought and that can be, and this is the principle from which Parmenides starts. It is impossible to think what is not, and it is impossible for what cannot be thought to be. The great question, Is it or is it not? is therefore equivalent to the question, Can it be thought or not? In any case, the work thus has two divisions. The first discusses the truth, and the second the world of illusion — that is, the world of the senses and the erroneous opinions of mankind founded upon them. In his opinion truth  lies in the perception that existence is, and error in the idea that non-existence also can be. Nothing can have real existence but what is conceivable; therefore to be imagined and to be able to exist are the same thing, and there is no development. The essence of what is conceivable is incapable of development, imperishable, immutable, unbounded, and indivisible. What is various and mutable, all development, is a delusive phantom. Perception is thought directed to the pure essence of being; the phenomenal world is a delusion, and the opinions formed concerning it can only be improbable. Parmenides goes on to consider in the light of this principle the consequences of saying that anything is. In the first place, it cannot have come into being. If it had, it must have arisen from nothing or from something. It cannot have arisen from nothing; for there is no nothing. It cannot have arisen from something; for here is nothing else than what is. Nor can anything else besides itself come into being; for there can be no empty space in which it could do so. Is it or is it not? If it is, then it is now, all at once. In this way Parmenides refutes all accounts of the origin of the world. Ex nihilo nihil fit. Further, if it is, it simply is, and it cannot be more or less. There is, therefore, as much of it in one place as in another. (That makes rarefaction and condensation impossible.) it is continuous and indivisible; for there is nothing but itself which could prevent its parts being in contact with one another. It is therefore full, a continuous indivisible plenum. (That is directed against the Pythagorean theory of a discontinuous reality.) Further, it is immovable. If it moved, it must move into empty space, and empty space is nothing, and there is no nothing. Also it is finite and spherical; for it cannot be in one direction any more than in another, and the sphere is the only figure of which this can be said. What is, therefore a finite, spherical, motionless, continuous plenum, and there is nothing beyond it. Coming into being and ceasing to be are mere ‘names’, and so is motion, and still more color and the like. They are not even thoughts; for a thought must be a thought of something that is, and none of these can be. Such is the conclusion to which the view of the real as a single body inevitably leads, and there is no escape from it. The ‘matter’ of our physical text-books is just the real of Parmenides; and, unless we can find room for something else than matter, we are shut up into his account of reality. No subsequent system could afford to ignore this, but of course it was impossible to acquiesce permanently in a doctrine like that of Parmenides. It deprives the world we know of all claim to existence, and reduces it to something which is hardly even an illusion. If we are to give an intelligible account of the world, we must certainly introduce motion again somehow. That can never be taken for granted any more, as it was by the early cosmologists; we must attempt to explain it if we are to escape from the conclusions of Parmenides. Heraclitus (fl. c.500 BCE) A Greek philosopher of the late 6th century BCE, Heraclitus criticizes his predecessors and contemporaries for their failure to see the unity in experience. He claims to announce an everlasting Word (Logos) according to which all things are one, in some sense. Opposites are necessary for life, but they are unified in a system of balanced exchanges. The world itself consists of a law-like interchange of elements, symbolized by fire. Thus the world is not to be identified with any particular substance, but rather with an ongoing process governed by a law of change. The underlying law of nature also manifests itself as a moral law for human beings. Heraclitus is the first Western philosopher to go beyond physical theory in search of metaphysical foundations and moral applications. Anaxagoras (c.500—428 BCE) Anaxagoras of Clazomenae was an important Presocratic natural philosopher and scientist who lived and taught in Athens for approximately thirty years. He gained notoriety for his materialistic views, particularly his contention that the sun was a fiery rock. This led to charges of impiety, and he was sentenced to death by the Athenian court. He avoided this penalty by leaving Athens, and he spent his remaining years in exile. While Anaxagoras proposed theories on a variety of subjects, he is most noted for two theories. First, he speculated that in the physical world everything contains a portion of everything else. His observation of how nutrition works in animals led him to conclude that in order for the food an animal eats to turn into bone,  hair, flesh, and so forth, it must already contain all of those constituents within it. The second theory of significance is Anaxagoras’ postulation of Mind (Nous) as the initiating and governing principle of the cosmos. Democritus ( 460—370 BCE) Democritus was born at Abdera, about 460 BCE, although according to some 490. His father was from a noble family and of great wealth, and contributed largely towards the entertainment of the army of Xerxes on his return to Asia. As a reward for this service the Persian monarch gave and other Abderites presents and left among them several Magi. Democritus, according to Diogenes Laertius, was instructed by these Magi in astronomy and theology. After the death of his father he traveled in search of wisdom, and devoted his inheritance to this purpose, amounting to one hundred talents. He is said to have visited Egypt, Ethiopia, Persia, and India. Whether, in the course of his travels, he visited Athens or studied under Anaxagoras is uncertain. During some part of his life he was instructed in Pythagoreanism, and was a disciple of Leucippus. After several years of traveling, Democritus returned to Abdera, with no means of subsistence. His brother Damosis, however, took him in. According to the law of Abdera, whoever wasted his patrimony would be deprived of the rites of burial. Democritus, hoping to avoid this disgrace, gave public lectures. Petronius relates that he was acquainted with the virtues of herbs, plants, and stones, and that he spent his life in making experiments upon natural bodies. He acquired fame with his knowledge of natural phenomena, and predicted changes in the weather. He used this ability to make people believe that he could predict future events. They not only viewed him as something more than mortal, but even proposed to put him in control of their public affairs. He preferred a contemplative to an active life, and therefore declined these public honors and passed the remainder of his days in solitude. Credit cannot be given to the tale that Democritus spent his leisure hours in chemical researches after the philosopher’s stone — the dream of a later age; or to the story of his conversation with Hippocrates concerning Democritus’s supposed madness, as based on spurious letters. Democritus has been commonly known as â€Å"The Laughing Philosopher,† and it is gravely related  by Seneca that he never appeared in public with out expressing his contempt of human follies while laughing. Accordingly, we find that among his fellow-citizens he had the name of â€Å"the mocker†. He died at more than a hundred years of age. It is said that from then on he spent his days and nights in caverns and sepulchers, and that, in order to master his intellectual faculties, he blinded himself with burning glass. This story, however, is discredited by the writers who mention it insofar as they say he wrote books and dissected animals, neither of which could be done we ll without eyes. Democritus expanded the atomic theory of Leucippus. He maintained the impossibility of dividing things ad infinitum. From the difficulty of assigning a beginning of time, he argued the eternity of existing nature, of void space, and of motion. He supposed the atoms, which are originally similar, to be impenetrable and have a density proportionate to their volume. All motions are the result of active and passive affection. He drew a distinction between primary motion and its secondary effects, that is, impulse and reaction. This is the basis of the law of necessity, by which all things in nature are ruled. The worlds which we see — with all their properties of immensity, resemblance, and dissimilitude — result from the endless multiplicity of falling atoms. The human soul consists of globular atoms of fire, which impart movement to the body. Maintaining his atomic theory throughout, Democritus introduced the hypothesis of images or idols (eidola), a kind of emanation from external objects, which make an impression on our senses, and from the influence of which he deduced sensation (aesthesis) and thought (noesis). He distinguished between a rude, imperfect, and therefore false perception and a true one. In the same manner, consistent with this theory, he accounted for the popular notions of Deity; partly through our incapacity to understand fully the phenomena of which we are witnesses, and partly from the impressions communicated by certain beings (eidola) of enormous stature and resembling the human figure which inhabit the air. We know these from dreams and the causes of divination. He carried his theory into practical philosophy also, laying down that happiness consisted in an even temperament. From this he deduced his moral principles and prudential maxims. It was from Democritus that  Epicurus borrowed the princi pal features of his philosophy. Empedocles (c.492—432 BCE) Empedocles (of Acagras in Sicily) was a philosopher and poet: one of the most important of the philosophers working before Socrates (the Presocratics), and a poet of outstanding ability and of great influence upon later poets such as Lucretius. His works On Nature and Purifications (whether they are two poems or only one – see below) exist in more than 150 fragments. He has been regarded variously as a materialist physicist, a shamanic magician, a mystical theologian, a healer, a democratic politician, a living god, and a fraud. To him is attributed the invention of the four-element theory of matter (earth, air, fire, and water), one of the earliest theories of particle physics, put forward seemingly to rescue the phenomenal world from the static monism of Parmenides. Empedocles’ world-view is of a cosmic cycle of eternal change, growth and decay, in which two personified cosmic forces, Love and Strife, engage in an eternal battle for supremacy. In psychology and ethics Empedocles was a follower of Pythagoras, hence a believer in the transmigration of souls, and hence also a vegetarian. He claims to be a daimà ´n, a divine or potentially divine being, who, having been banished from the immortals gods for ‘three times countless years’ for committing the sin of meat-eating and forced to suffer successive reincarnations in an purificatory journey through the different orders of nature and elements of the cosmos, has now achieved the most perfect of human states and will be reborn as an immortal. He also claims seemingly magical powers including the ability to revive the dead and to control the winds and rains.

Charles Marlow: Narrating the Darkness Essay -- Joseph Conrads novella

In Joseph Conrad's novella, the Heart of Darkness (1899), Conrad effectively presents the character of Charles Marlow through the heavy usage of Marlow's personal narration throughout the novella. By using such a method of presentation, Conrad presents to the reader Marlow's character, most important of which, his hypocrisy throughout his expedition through Africa. Marlow’s change from an idealistic European seeking work into one who has seen the â€Å"heart of darkness† is illustrated well by using him as the principal narrator, guiding the reader through his descent into madness due his sensitivity to the â€Å"darkness†. Charles Marlow is introduced to the reader by an unnamed narrator, one of five men aboard the Nellie. Of note, he alone is given a physical description by the narrator, of â€Å"sunken cheeks† and â€Å"yellow complexion†, clearly someone who has experienced suffering, even evident in this short description. His physical appearance is not well, and the reader can infer that Marlow’s mental state is not much better, an implication that is soon confirmed by the novel. Shortly after being introduced, Marlow begins his tale, of how he sailed to Africa, comparing it to how the Romans may have felt when they went to the then uncivilized lands of modern London. He retells his experiences there as a member of the â€Å"noble† Company. In doing so, Marlow’s personality is described in great detail, more than the words themselves reveal. Conrad’s choice of using a frame narrative allows the reader to see Marlow’s perspective of events, and give a notable change in tone as the novella progresses. As he enters his story, Marlow tells the fate of his predecessor, a Dane named Fresleven, who â€Å"...went ashore and started to hammer the chief of ... ...searching for truth. As the narrator for the majority of Heart of Darkness, Marlow is recounting his experiences, and reliving his most horrible moments. As the Nellie sails down the Thames into the dark emptiness, Marlow can only see the same, none of the light and brightness means anything. Conrad’s choice of making Marlow the principal narrator telling his own story is an effective way of conveying his message to the reader. The reader will notice Marlow’s descent to madness, his conversations with others being the points of descent, and his thoughts being the indicators. Ultimately, Marlow’s tale makes it apparent that the idealism of anyone, regardless of how intelligent, educated or civilized, cannot survive in the all-consuming heart of darkness. Works Cited Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness and The Secret Sharer. New York: Signet Classics, 1997. Print.

Post Modernist Director Jim Jarmusch Essay

Jim Jarmusch is one of the prominent post-modernist directors whose works produced a profound impression on the audience and often evoked quite controversial emotions. His films are very original and convey the authentic message of the author, but the director often chooses such means of conveying his ideas that his works are perceived in different way by different people. In fact, some people enjoy his films and believe they are genius, while, on the other hand, there are people who do not really understand his works and are very critical in relation to his works. At the same time, it should be said that his films are destined not only for specialists but also for the mass audience, though the director’s ideas may be not always clear for ordinary viewers. Nevertheless, the artistic value of his works is practically undeniable. As a rule, his films are stylistically and artistically rich. The director skillfully applies different stylistic devices which help him convey his message to the audience. Among films created by Jim Jarmusch, it is possible to single out his film â€Å"Down by Law†, which depicts the tragedy of main characters who have to pass through serious challenges in the course of the film. At the same time, this film is a perfect sample of post-modernist films, where main characters confront severe reality of the modern world and where it is really difficult to distinguish between good and evil, right and wrong. In his film the author shows that in the epoch of high technologies, there are still a lot of problems which affect the life of ordinary people and make the life very difficult and even tragic. On analyzing the film â€Å"Down by Law† by Jim Jarmusch, it is necessary to start with the title of the film because it gives insight into the contents and message of the film. In fact, the title of the film is quite symbolic, though it is practically directly indicates to the overwhelming power of law and its impact on an individual. The title of the film clearly conveys the message that the law can affect the life of people dramatically and, what is even more important, the law is not always right or good. Basically, it is possible to estimate that Jim Jarmusch attempts to moralize and analyze the relationship between an individual and the law. Judging from the title, the director stands on the ground that the law can oppress an individual, it can deprive a person of freedom and punish severely. In this respect, the events depicted in the film are quite logical and basically support first ideas that the title of the film evoke. To put it more precisely, the main characters, three inmates, Zack, Jack and Bob, are cellmates and the director attempts to show that all of them are innocent and were wrongfully accused of crimes they have never committed. Nevertheless, all of them are sentenced and, therefore, punished by the existing judicial system which executes the law established in the society. In such a way, the author uses the title to prepare the audience to the perception of the film and adequate interpretation of his main message and ideas. It gives insight concerning the problem raised in the film, but, at the same time, the title also creates certain emotional state or mood which prepares the audience to perception of the film in the way the director finds the most suitable. To put it more precisely, the title has quite a negative connotation of the law. Traditionally, the law is associated with justice. The modern society gets used to perceive law as the basis of the social life, since laws regulate relations between people and support the existing social order and social stability. The violation of law naturally leads to the punishment of an individual through which the individual is supposed to be corrected and change his lifestyle and behavior. In other words, the law is viewed as a tool of the adaptation of the behavior of an individual to socially appropriate and acceptable norms. In such a context, the law is viewed as a positive concept since it maintains justice and social stability that are highly appreciated in the modern society. However, the title of the film suggests an alternative view on the law. Implicitly, â€Å"Down by Law† tends to convince the audience that the law is the punishment above all and its power is used to get people down, while there is little indication to any kind of justice in the title of the film. On the contrary, such a title rather produces an impression that the law is not absolutely just, if not to say unjust. In actuality, the title of the film refers probably to one of the major themes of the film – the relationship between a man and the law. Remarkably, the author attempts to show that the law is really oppressive that may be seen from the title of the film. However, such a conclusion is logical and the title is only a tool with the help of which the director conveys this idea. In actuality, the entire film shows that the law, as a tool of human justice, is often blind. Jim Jarmusch shows that the law is not a synonym of justice. In stark contrast, the law is shown as a powerful tool which has little in common with the concept of justice (Jilesen, 236). Even thought the concept of justice is not clearly defined by the director in the film, it is very difficult to get rid of impression that the law is wrong, at least in relation to the main characters, who got their sentences for crimes they had never committed. In actuality, the director manages to show that the concept of law, as a symbol of justice, is very conventional and it seems as if he wants to convince the audience that people should not totally rely on the law and the justice system at large, because there still remains the risk of errors and innocent people can go to prison. At the same time, Jim Jarmusch pays a lot of attention to interpersonal relations between people. In fact, it is even possible to estimate that the director attempts to underline the significance of interpersonal relationships, which can outweigh even the relationship between a man and the law. Unlike the relationship of a man and the law, the relationship between people is not conventional. In stark contrast, they are very personal and people can learn more about each other through communication and, in such a context, decisions of the judicial system made on the basis of law are absolutely irrelevant to people. What is meant here is the fact that the main characters of the film, the three cellmates, could perceive each other as criminals. Formally, all of them were accused and sentenced to different terms. Therefore, they could naturally perceive each other as criminals because the law defined them as criminals. At the beginning of the film, the director actually shows that such stereotyping on the basis of decisions of the judicial system can affect the perception of people. In such a situation, it seems to be quite natural that Zack and Jack soon come to blows because they perceive each other as criminals and, in actuality, their conflict is, to a significant extent, provoked by stereotyping and biased attitudes of Zack and Jack to each other. In fact, it is the biases and stereotypes imposed on them by the law lead them to the conflict. However, the director of the film apparently does not really believe that the law and the existing judicial system is worth trusting. Jim Jarmusch lays emphasis on the importance of interpersonal relationships which actually define the life of people and their perception of each other (Jilesen, 218). In other words, the director puts human relationships consistently higher than any conventional norms or regulations imposed on people by laws, traditions, tc. In fact, it is through the interpersonal relationship between people their nature and character is revealed. In this respect, it should be said that from the point of view of the law all the three inmates are criminals, but through their interpersonal relationships, they reveal the fact that they are not as bad as they seem to be judging from their sentences and crimes they are accused of. On the other hand, the director avoids labeling his main characters as either positive or negative. He wants to show that his characters are real people, they are alive, they have their own feelings, emotions, ideals. Briefly speaking, they are humans and, therefore, they are imperfect. At any rate, Jim Jarmusch does not idealize his characters and shows that they have both positive and negative qualities. At the same time, he shows that the world, society get used to perceive people in such a way, i. e. through the antagonism between good and bad. In this respect, the use of black and white color in the film is very symbolic. Traditionally, good and bad is associated with white and black color respectively. Jim Jarmusch has shot the film in black and white intentionally in order to convey his message to the audience. In fact, it is possible to view his film as a kind of mirror where the traditional perception of the modern world is reflected. To put it more precisely, people get used to perceive each other either positively or negatively, people are either good or bad. Hence, the choice of colors in the film is very original and unusual for the late 1980s, when there were quite a few films shot in black and white. The director attempted to convince the audience that people get used to perceive this world only in two colors (Hertzberg, 175). Therefore, the use of black and white was quite logical since the film just shows people the world in the colors people get used to perceive the world in. In such a way, the director also warns people about the danger of the loss of other colors since, on perceiving the life through the antagonism of black and white, bad and good, wrong and right, people forget about intermediary states and other colors and concepts. In such a context, when black and white dominates in the film, it is the complexity of interpersonal relationships of the main characters that makes the film really colorful and bright. And again it is possible to speak about a profound attention of the author to interpersonal relations between people which are extremely important to each individual. Moreover, it is relationships with other people that make human life purposeful and brings in certain sense. However, the director creates quite an unusual relationship between the main characters. For instance, Zack and Jack do not speak to each other after the conflict which occurs at the beginning of the film. Nevertheless, it does not prevent them from the establishment of good relationships and it is even possible to speak about a strange but strong friendship between these two not very talkative men (Hertzberg, 153). Their friendship grows stronger as they come through all the hardships after the escape from the prison. In such a way, the author shows that human relations are very complicated and it is very difficult to understand what actually makes people help each other and become friends. At first glance, Zack and Jack have no chances to become friends, at least at the beginning of the film, but by the end of the film they cannot be viewed otherwise but friends, even though they do not talk to each other. Consequently, there should something else in humans that makes them feel confident in each other and become friends. In this respect, it is possible to speak about strong post-modernist trends that can be easily traced in the film, especially through the relationship between Zack and Jack. What is meant here is the fact that Jim Jarmusch actually challenges the existing social norms and purely materialistic view on human life. Obviously, he rejects the supremacy of the law as a synonym of justice. Moreover, he even rejects traditional views on human relations and denies the rigid materialism of the conservative or traditional artists. His characters’ friendship cannot be rationally explained by a scientific theory or logic. Traditionally, normal or positive interpersonal relationships are established through verbal communication, but Zack and Jack have none. Instead, it is rather a kind of spiritual unity or spiritual communication between the main characters. In fact, their friendship is, to a certain extent, almost mystical. At any rate, it is irrational and does not meet any scientific approach that is very typical for post-modernist art at large and films in particular. In this respect, it should be said that, being a post-modernist director, Jim Jarmusch is very skeptical about science as well as about existing stereotypes, social norms, and the law (Suarez, 186). Instead, he argues that people are spiritually rich and it is impossible to explain logically and rationally all their actions and behavior. They can make errors and they can suffer from errors of other people or the existing social or justice system, but still they remain people. Basically, it seems as if the director cannot fully understand human beings, this is why he shows that some of their actions are defined by their internal inclinations or spiritual world. At the same time, the entire film may be viewed as a post-modernist protest against the existing social norms, stereotypes and biases, which limit humans by boundaries of social and legal conventions, norms and regulations. In such a context, the successful escape of the main characters from the prison is very symbolic because, in such a way, they escaped from the social biases and stereotypes, they freed themselves not only literally as they got freedom to move wherever they wanted, but they also got moral and spiritual freedom. They escape from the prison of social stereotypes and unjust laws. Moreover, after the escape, Bob even found his love and became happy that implies that only freeing themselves people can become really happy. Thus, taking into account all above mentioned, it is possible to conclude that Jim Jarmusch is a successful post-modernist director, who attempted to convey his original ideas and his unique vision of the world and men through his works, among which it is possible to single out â€Å"Down by Law†. In this work, the author perfectly illustrated the imperfectness of the contemporary world and humans. He lays emphasis on the erroneous nature of the existing laws, stereotypes and traditional views of people which heavily rely on materialism, rationalism and logic. Instead, he appeals to human nature, to human spirituality and he underlines that people should strive for their own freedom from their own biases and stereotypes. People, according to Jim Jarmusch should be really free as are his characters.

Greek and Hellenistic Civilization, The Byzantine Empire

The Minoans are Bronze Age the civilization that arose In Crete In third and second millennia BCC. There called after their legendary King Minis. Their reign is divided into 3 main periods: Early, Middle and Late Minoans. Their art and architecture was very distinctive and glorious showing scenes of peace and melancholy, however they didn't have strong walls which were built for defense. Excavation on these sites have revealed some clay tablets that were written on, on some even in a writing that is considered as an early Greek language.The Mycenaean are people who used metal, built houses and traded with Crete and other Islands. These people lived on the Creek mainland. It Is not known where they came from, they did not even speak a language that was Indo-European. Excavators show signs of later invasions of Greeks. The Mycenaean were warriors ruled by powerful kings and had fortresses built on hills with sorting defensive walls. Unlike Minoans', their murals are showing scenes of w ars and hunting. They are mentioned in the archives of the Hitter Kings of Asia Minor and in Egyptian records.They probably destroyed Troy, which later was a basis for Homer's Iliad and the Eyes. Around 1200 BCC, this civilization shows signs of struggle and they disappeared. After their disappearance, which Is considered the fault of the Dorian, Greece entered the dark middle ages, about which is not much known. Homer's poems provide the best insight into these dark ages. They are based upon oral poetry and tradition that has come from that very time. Polls in the Expanding Greek World It Is the most characteristic Greek Institution representing a city-state.All of polices were initially villages or towns with flourishing agriculture. A polis was a community of relatives: the citizens have come from one coaster, so they all present subgroups which were brotherhoods, clans or tribes. Later on, agar – a marketplace and CIVIC – center appeared In polls, It became a place of social interaction and major conversations. The hoppled phalanx has become an invitational war technique. From 8th to 6th century BCC, Greek period of colonization began – they successfully placed polis all the way from Span to the Black Sea.They Inhabited Macedonia, and had many colonies In Sicily and Italy later called Magna Grackle. Colonization gave them sense of belonging, of having a culture (phenylalanine). It also encouraged trade and industry. Many of the new wealth citizens were not of aristocratic blood, they were not politically Included, so they rebelled and many of those conflicts resulted In tyranny. Tyrants (700-500 BCC) were monarchs who gained power unorthodoxly and ruled 1 org only to gain more power and be more popular among the citizens. They cultivated arts, literature and technology. The last of them are remembered as oppressive and aggressive.Archaic Greece Aristocrats lead privileged lives, the others farmed the land. The religion played important role in those times. Like most ancient nations, the Greeks were polytheists. The art and literature and general life of polis were tightly connected with religion. The 12 deities that lived on Mount Olympus were considered to behave like humans. The early Greek traders learnt many techniques in Syria. They borrowed the writing system from a Semitic script and added vowel to create the first real alphabet ever, which was easy to learn. Due to that, the Greece became a widely literate society.During the 6th century, the lyric has become a new genre of poetry. The poets wrote about personal issues that can be implied in life, like love and political state and opinions. Polis and Persian Wars Each polis developed in a unique way. Athens and Sparta have become the most powerful city-states with unusual histories. The wars with Persia have ended the lambasting freedom of polis. Spartan conquered Messiah due to population increase and hunger. The Helots of Messiah now had to work for the Spartan, so they rebelled. To keep them DOD, Spartan turned the state to a military camp.In that way they turned the center of Helots' devotion from family to polis. Athens was governed by a council of nobles. Due to degenerating crisis and socioeconomic change, the Athenians elected Solon. He cancelled debts, forbade bet slavery and brought Athenians who were enslaved abroad. He forbade the export of some major goods, but encouraged the production of olive oil and wine for sale. He changed the way of government by improving the economy of Athens. In 6th century BCC, some of the coastline polis in Asia Minor fell under the control of King Crosses of Lydia and the powerful Persian Empire.The situation was calm enough, no one rebelled until a tyrant Aristocrat of Milieus ended the calm. Persians conquered island Nanas. Later Aristocrat tried to raise a rebellion in Ionian and turned to the mainland polios. Athenians burned Saris, the seat of Persian governor. Persia countered by destr oying Milieus and ending the rebellion in Ionian. In 490 BCC, Persian king Diaries decided to punish Athens. The Persians were defeated at Marathon. In 481 BCC, Xeroxes gathered an army of 150, 000 men and Ana of 600 ships and attacked Athens, which defeated the Persians again with only 200 ships.On mainland, the Spartan tried to sop the Persian invasion, but failed. The war was won by Greece, due to their great fight on the sea. Classical Greece After the Persians retreated, Greece be+entered its classical period, which has aridly ever been surpassed in cultural achievement by any other civilization. It is also 150 years of conflict between the polis, which resulted in them being weakened and vulnerable. As the strongest and best equipped polis in Greece. Common, the leader of Athens wanted to aggressively attack Persia and stay in friendly relations with Spartan.Prices however, wanted to change that state. They eventually all arranged Common's exile, and formed an ally with Argos, Sprat's enemy. A conflict emerged between Sprat's and Athens allies known as the First Polynesian War. The Athenians remained undefeated during the early years of the war. In 454 BCC, Athenian fleet was destroyed and the revolts broke inside the Delia League. Sparta and Athens agreed on 30 years of peace in Greece, at that time, divided into 2 parts. The peace only lasted for 10 years. This war was long and sit destroyed the foundation of whole civilization.After years of fighting and ruining, no one won. The Athenian Empire lost its power and collapsed. Through the years, the Spartan intervened in many conflicts with Persia and won, later even controlling the Mesopotamia. They became very aggressive and lawless, which, in their future battles caused them to ruin themselves. Greece has once again come to the pre-wars period of disorientation. Hellenic Culture A period of 3 centuries in which Greek culture had spread itself to Egypt and into the far eastern Asia. The Hellenic civili zation was combination of Asian and Greek elements.It arose with the rise of power of Macedonia, which conquered Greece and Persia in two generations. Macedon Kingdom was in the between Greece and barbaric tribes of the North. For Greeks, Macedonian were semicircular. Philip II of Macedon unified Macedon in 359 BCC he created his people as a strong fighting force. In 338 BCC, he defeated Athens and Thebes. Phillip was murdered, but his son, Alexander the Great, succeeded in his father's plans to conquer Persia. His battles were quick and short, he wanted them like that decisively because he needed supplies of minor Persian strongholds.He fought intelligently, marching straight through Syria and defeating the Persian army, causing king Diaries Ill to flee. He easily conquered Egypt and was met with ovations and considered the Son of God Re, savior and pharaoh. Diaries Ill offered him alliance to end the invasion. He refused. In Mesopotamia, he again tactically defeated the Persians, Diaries fled again. He entered Babylon and was declared a king and a savior one more. He burned Prolepsis, after taking all the money he needed to circulate in his empire, as a symbol of final destruction of Persia.He later found Diaries dead, so he captured Diaries' replacement, Busses, and headed to India. Near Samaritan, in one of towns named after him, he married a Bacteria princess. He conquered Pakistan, going even further to see the river Ocean for which Greeks thought was the end of the world. His tired men refused to go further, so they went back to Persian Gulf. He had great plan for future, but in his 33rd year, he died. Overall, the Hellenic heritage provided us an insurmountable quantity of culture and teachings, from medicine, mathematics and astronomy to arts, literature an philosophies.Chapter 11 The Byzantine Empire and Western Europe The Fall of Western Roman Empire In fifth century CE Italy and Rome endured several sieges and attacks by barbarian fragmented Wester n Empire fell in hands of the barbarians. Rome officially fell in 457; emperor Divorce declared Zone, the Eastern Roman emperor, as the only emperor of the whole Roman Empire. The barbarians culturally separated Europe from its Classical Age. Rupee's development was stagnating due to the political and economical fragmentation, while other civilizations were improving their assets.China was securing its borders from foreign invasions between 8th and 10th century. They were more cosmopolitan and politically and technologically unified than Europe at the time. They even had movable type printing machines in 10th century, which the West became knowledge with in 1 5th century. The rulers' authority was extended greatly upon the people, while in Europe the power the rulers had was mainly inside the government centers. India was blossoming under the reign of Guavas in 4th and 5th centuries, until the Arab expansion to Spain and India in 8th century.Japan was fragmented in similar means Jus t like Europe. The Byzantine Empire In the 4th century, the imperial power shifted to the eastern part of empire. Emperor Justinian reign for the greatest period of Constantinople glory. The strength of the empire could be seen in the tight central control of over 1,500 powerful cities all around the Byzantine, some of which had about 50,000 citizens, while Constantinople had about 350,000 inhabitants – the most populated city of the oral at the time. Let has been a crossroads between Europe and Asia.Justinian policy was to centralize governments by imposing legal and doctrinal conformity – codification of existing Roman Law – Corpus Jurist Civil (studied and used even today). At the time, church and rulers were closely tied, in the means that the ruler had power over the church. Barbarian Invasions of Western Roman Empire The Germanic tribes had coexisted peacefully with the Romans for several centuries, until appearance of Hung. Therefore, the Germanic fled we stward to the Roman Empire and there were faced with famine, disease, high taxes and poor litany – they've easily gained control over the land.Justinian tried to regain Western Roman Empire, but only partially succeeded for some time. Avers, Slavs and Bulgaria invaded North and West lands around Constantinople in 6th and 7th centuries. Slavs covered to Eastern Orthodoxy (Byzantine Christianity) by two saints, Cyril and Methodism, who invented the Greek-based alphabet of Slavic language. It was later revise by Bulbar influence and today is known as Cyclic. Heraclites was the first emperor who spoke only Greek, not Latin. He spent his life resisting Persian and Islamic invasions.Eventually, in 7th century, Islamic armies overran the empire and they steadily progressed, until emperor Leo Ill who repelled Arabs. He succeeded to take back most of Asia Minor, but the Mediterranean was forever lost. Constantinople was of great importance and very interesting to non-Christians as the centre of the world. In time, there were not only Fresh, Paisa and Venetian quarters, but Muslim and Jewish ones as well. The period of strong imperial rule was in 10th century. Former military reforms (7th and oh centuries) allowed better resistance to the enemy invasions.Macedonian Bulgaria were halted by Basil II, the fiercest emperor of the dynasty. All in all, Macedonian reign was age of art, literature and culture – a revival period. It was a period of state-controlled growth and military peace. The peace was broken in 1071, first with the loss of the last stronghold of Byzantine Empire in the West: Barb, a town in Italy; it fell to the Norman kings of France, and second with the coming of Muslim Seller Turks. They destroyed the imperial army in the battle of Amazement and overran Anatolia, from where the Byzantine Empire recruited its soldiers.Empire had to fight the enemies on two fronts, all the while it served a purpose of religious and cultural heritage center of he West. After more than 20 years of steady Turkish advances, emperor Alexis I called for help from the West. The Pope launched the first Crusade. In 1204, the 4th Crusade was stopped in Constantinople on their way to Jerusalem. Even though their purpose should have been the rescuing of the Byzantine capital, they inflicted more damage upon Jerusalem than all the previous invaders of other religions. Religious Diversity Religious belief was of great servitude to political unity.In 391 the officially declared faith of Eastern Empire was Christianity, while other religions and sects were forbidden and proclaimed as heresy. Patriarchs were those who crowned the emperors and they were highly respected and generously endowed. A lot of Jews lived in the empire and they were protected by Roman Law. Some emperors tried to convert them to Christianity boot forcefully and indirectly, but those methods proven themselves unsuccessful. In 4th century, the Nice Creed was concluded, claiming that the Holy Spirit proceeded from Father only, not from the Son.Some scholars believe that the Creed has been of political concern: by protecting the majesty of Father, they were actually protecting the position of the emperor, for whom was believed to have all et power of he worlds. In 8th century, Leo Ill forbade the use of icons in worship, iconoclasm. That served to furtherer divide the East and West parts of the empire by shocking the Roman Popes who allied with Freakish kings. Eastern church also denied the existence of Purgatory, allowed marriage to the priests and allowed liturgies to be held in other languages, not only in Greek or Latin.This all lead to the great schism in 1054. These privileges the Western Christians didn't gain until the Protestant Reformation in 16th century. Impact of Islam on East and West Unlike other invaders, Arabs imposed their culture and religion whatever land hey conquered. In 8th century, they gained access to Spain – that was the beginnin g of 700-year reign of today's Andalusia. South and East Mediterranean coastline were also under their control. On the other side, other Muslim armies, Seller and Ottoman Turks, proceeded over Mesopotamia and Persia toward Byzantine.The Muslims tolerated Christians and Jews – they made no efforts to convert them to Islam, however they made sure the conquered people pay special taxes which itself encouraged the conversion to Islam. Leo Ill stopped them at the time from developing further, until 1453. Franks stopped the Arabs from their expansion to the very center of Europe on Christians and Muslims continued in the means of trade. Caliphates of Islamic empire found the Byzantine as a perfect model, the courts and architecture were all having impact on the Islamic conquerors and the art became a foundation for later Arab illuminations.Arab rulers wanted to see their faith in intellectual terms and associate themselves with an older powerful tradition. This wish influenced Musl im interest in Ancient Greek culture and learning, especially in medicine, astronomy, philosophy and logic. They translated all of the now studies from Greek. Arab scholars noted that Christian emperors suppressed the Greek studies on purpose due to political reasons. The Western civilization gained the most from Muslim teachings, the Greek famous works were thankless to Latin thanks to the Arabs in Spain, who allowed mixed communities.Roman Church Development Through all of this, while the Western Empire was slowly crumbling, the church gained in power. On, the church became a great substitution of sometime emperors of the Western Romans. Church and the Pope gained the control over Rome and became a center of all that left in the empire. They gained strength, special privileges, great lands and wealth. The church had a religious message to help in the worst time and rituals that united people beyond the barriers, all the while acting as a central administrations power.The Monastic culture was widely spread, resulting in the appearance of monks, who later became willing to serve the needs of the infirm and poor people by caring for them. As the problems for Eastern Roman Empire continued, the Pope took the opportunity and declared himself as a Christ visceral on Earth hiving him absolute power in secular and other sectors of the Empire, too. The Kingdom of the Franks Their territory include the land of today's France, western Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands. Innervations' counts had become territorial rulers for their own benefit, which resulted in the weakening of the Innervations.Later on, the Carolingian gained power and took the crown of Freakish kings after their strong army of counts who held the lands defeated the Arabs on the west frontier. The Carolingian used the power of church to pacify the tribes – Bars, Frisian and Saxons, who were the greatest enemies of the Franks. The church helped them to take the title of the crown dynasty. Toget her, they formed an alliance after the Nice Creed against the Eastern emperor. The Franks protected the church and king Pepping was declared as a father-protector of the Roman, which was , by that time, only emperor's title.Franks defeated the Lombardi and gave the lands to the church around Rome. This land are known as the Papal States. Throughout the time, peasants were classified as free on unfreeze bob their lord considering their heritage and property. Many of them escaped in search of better places. The Carolingian empire was divided in three parts and became fragmented due to the war between three brothers who owned the parts. The empire as itself would not be whole again until the 16th century. Feudalism It is the social, political and economic system that emerged from rich freemen who ruled the smaller, poorer freemen.This conditions prevailed due to constant threats people require firm assurance that others can be depended on in time of dire need. It is a system of mutual rights and responsibilities. The rich freemen, the masters had their own lands, own armies and courts, and the smaller ones were their vassals. The origins of the feudal society can be found in conflicts inside the Moravian dynasty and it lasted through the Carolingian, as well. Chapter 20 The Last Great Islamic Empires, 1500-1800 The Islamic vitality from 1450 to 1800 was proven by three great states of Ottomans, Savvied and Musicals.They built great militaries and civil states and revived Islamic culture and social life. Ottoman Empire Ottomans were a Turkish dynasty who originated from one of the groups of western Chough Turks in Central Asia. They came to Anatolia as Muslims. In the time, the first Turks that were residents of Byzantine were Useless. They had reign over dome parts of modern-day Turkey. He Ottoman power shifted to Dire on the Balkan Peninsula, slowly extending toward Anatolia. Constantinople finally fell Eden Ottoman control in 1453. By the reign of Sultan Mohame d II, The Conqueror. It became Ottoman capital after it was renamed to Istanbul.Ottomans allowed Christian patriarch to remain there and rule the Eastern church. The Ottoman expansions continued toward the center of Europe, often Justified in the name of Islam. Sultan Sells I conquered the lands of southeastern Europe, north of the Black Sea and majority of Ukraine, Egypt, annexed Syria and Palestine, as well as Mecca and Medina. Furthermore, Sultan Salesman Ã'›the Magnificent† expanded the empire over Sardinian, Georgia, Mesopotamia, Iraq and more of eastern Europe, as well as big part of Hungary and nearly Vienna. The entire empire was organized as a military institution.All member had ranks and positions, no matter their function. Grand Mufti or Sheikh of Islam, was a single religious authority who ruled the llama as a significant part of government. It was supposed to be only for Muslim men and had an entire system of courts and Judges and it held the supremacy of Shari' s, Muslim law Which was recognized by the Sultan himself. However, the empire had its strictly organized administrative law, Quean. After Salesman's death, his son Sells II gained control over the empire. It was weakened by military corruption, government decentralization and various other setbacks.Economically, inflation and agricultural failures have been sufficient to endure, but intellectual, the empire was vitality by cultural accomplishments. Savvied of Iran took control over Sardinian and Mesopotamia in 1603. The military was weakened from fighting on two fronts, with the addition of Rupee's progress in technology. In 17th century, the Janissaries became corrupt, meddling into politics and dynastic issues. Later on, Maraud IV from 1623 to 1640 tried to revivalist the reign, but he died leaving weakly centralized authority with taxes rising, paying the Janissaries, weakened all aspects of government to his successors. Epitomized majestically, ant the cultural exchange flourish ed, but at the same time, the llama became increasingly corrupt. There are some notable writers and historians such as Katie Chilled, Evilly Chilled, Minima the traveler, and greatest Ottoman poet, Ended. The greatest was the architect Asian. The empire had become influenced highly by Europeans and Jews and progressed as a multivalent, literature and multitudinous state. After the failure in 1683 to take Vienna, they came back from Hungary and Belgrade and never threatened Europe again.From 17th to 18th century, the empire was increasingly becoming dependent on international markets, in contrast to its self-sufficient growth and control of conquered lands. The European economics- based system was going toward industrialization and capitalism and the empire collapsed under their growing interest in 1918. The Safaris Empire and the West Asian World The Savvied originate from Turkish spiritual leaders of a Sunnis Suffix order in Azerbaijan. They officially appeared in 14th century. Soo n, their order evolved Shiite ideology.Throughout the years they had many conflicts and battles with neighboring nations and empires. A strong central rule of Shiite conformity was applied by Shah Somali, which caused even greater tensions with the neighbors. Ottoman sultan Sells I defeated the Safaris army in 1514, which caused wars on the Safaris- Ottoman border for about two centuries. Thanks to their religious feelings, the Savvied endured the constant attacks ender Somalia's successor, Thomas l. The next and the most able Safaris ruler, Shah Bass brought a first real type of leadership to Iran.He regained the provincial lands and used the men force in order to support Iranian troops as a counterweight to other problematic lands. He pushed the Ottomans out of Azerbaijan and Iraq and sought alliances with Ottoman's western enemies. This is the tactic that eventually caused many fatal divisions in both politics and economics in the assumed unity of Islamic world. Bass broke down t he monopoly of the Portuguese in trade on Persian shores and made deals with Dutch and English commerce in India. The grandeur capital he brought to Iran could best be seen at Safaris.However, the Savvied' power had a lambasting after-effect: the central faith of majority, Sunnis Islam, was replaced for Shiite Islam. The llama, society+TTY of scholars leaned the legitimacy to government and they discouraged the pilgrimage to Mecca, instead they encouraged visits to Kraal and the shrine of Hussar. By the 17th century, llama withdrew from any political participation. After Shah Bass, the empire didn't see able reign again. Pressure on two fronts, economics weakening and the increasing power of llama were the reasons the empire increasingly corrupted and eventually declined.Afghan leader forced Hussar I to abdicate. The lands of the empire were shared among the neighbors, only kept reign over western Iran. In 1747, the reign of Nadir Shah ended brutally. The Musicals The name is a Pers ian variation of the Mongols. They were Chatty Turks and they invaded India from the northwest starting a new era for India, by reuniting the fragmented states. The founder of the dynasty, Baber, marched to India, replaced However, the greatest ruler of India, since Osaka, was Kafka â€Å"the Great†. He gained his success with impressive military force, adding great lands to the empire.More important were his government reforms, his handling of cultural and religious differences. He organized the government and the tax system. Hindu-Muslims tensions were eased at the time when he married the Ragout princess. He also organized debates between various spiritual leaders, showing tolerance for all religions. Saba's successors had great achievements,too, but the problem in sustaining an Indian empire gradually became too much. Janitor and Shah Johan were rulers who accomplished most when it's about culture, particularly in architecture and painting.Shah Johan was strained with eco nomic problems, though. His building projects were too expensive, like Tax Mall, which he built for his beloved Mutual. Rearrange, Khan's son, was religiously conservative in more an more internally conflicted India. He persecuted non-Muslims, destroyed Hindu temples, reimbursed the poll tax and estranged the Ragout leaders. He denied and ruined everything Kafka ever fought for. Arranger's reign and methods were helping a lot to various movements, which include nationalism as well, and religions to culminate and eventually divide India religiously and nationally even more.

What Is Global Warming Essay Sample Essays

What Is Global Warming Essay Sample Essays What Is Global Warming Essay Sample Essay What Is Global Warming Essay Sample Essay Is global warming real Global warming refers to a climatic change characterized by the rise in temperature of the earth climate. it has some severe climatic effect globally with its main casualty being individuals who are affected by drought and famines as well as unprecedented floods. It is caused by the emission of heat-trapping gases such as carbon IV oxide. The gas has a greater risk that is irreversible. Additionally, global warming effects are felt in all part of the world. It leads to the rising of tides in oceans and seas affect the movement of goods and people. It leads to losses counting by industries which import or export their goods along the seas. Additionally, it affects movement of seas creature and growth of sea plants. It leads to changes in climatic rainfall pattern globally which become unpredictable, hence, affecting the economic activities of communities depending on rain for the economic activities. Notably, it changes snow pattern, increases in severe storms and drought, melting of glacial as well as changes in plant and animal behaviour. The effect of the global warming can be stopped through personal, government, and international initiatives aimed at curbing the effect. At a personal level, individuals should ensure that the item they use is environmentally friendly kitchen item as well as gadgets. the efforts can lead to lower level of carbon emissions. For example, they should avoid use traditions Jikos which have to emit more carbon. Further, they should be involved in the planting of more trees which assist in the cleaning of the environment. Governments in their part should take part in making legislation that prevents uses of gases of fuel that emit excessive carbon to the atmosphere. it should discourage excessivepurchase of personal vehicle and instead encourage citizen to shift to buses. it should lay down initiatives that encourage citizens to plant more trees and uses of environmentally friendly fuels which has less effect on the environment. Further, it should encourage industries to fix a scrubber in their industries to ensures that the gas being emitted is filtered. Finally, global entities such as UNEP organise environmental convention aimed at raising initiatives that encourage countries to avoid uses of the green house. they should create world environmental days where all governments should take part in observing. It should lay down standards and levels a country should be as well as a collective action on the most hit part of the world. Conclusively, controlling global warming is significant as it makes the world a safe place for current and future generation. It ensures that the pattern of the world including rainfall and snow pattern is consistent. Individuals should be taken initiatives at their personal level and ensure that whatever they use is environmentally friendly. Governments should pass legislation that safeguards or environment while global organs should conduct convention which promotes the use of eco-friendly gadgets as well as undertaking activities which are environmentally friendly. Therefore, individuals, government, and international organisation should play a major role in ensuring that the environment is safe.